China's Space Exploration: Vast Cosmos, Endless Pursuit

Bao Weimin

The universe, vast and profound, has borne the grand dreams of humanity from ancient times to the present. Space exploration represents humanity's quest to uncover the mysteries of the cosmos, serving as a crucial driving force for the advancement of civilization. Throughout the history of civilizational progress, aerospace technology has penned an epic chapter of humanity's journey from Earth into the boundless universe. On the path of national development, space power has expanded the horizons of human existence and safeguarded the security and development interests of nations.

The Chinese nation is one that dares to pursue its dreams. The romantic myths of Chang'e flying to the moon and the celestial beings soaring through the skies in Dunhuang vividly illustrate the imagination and aspirations for the vast cosmos embedded in traditional Chinese culture. Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, we have steadfastly followed a path of self-reliance and independent innovation in aerospace development. Step by step, we have realized the dreams of leaving Earth, exploring the universe, and traveling through space, achieving a series of remarkable accomplishments that have captured global attention. This journey has nurtured a profound and rich aerospace spirit, laying a solid foundation for building a strong space power.

Exploring the vast universe, developing the aerospace industry, and building a strong space power are the relentless pursuits of our aerospace dream. On June 24, 2013, President Xi Jinping engaged in a warm conversation with the Shenzhou-10 astronauts aboard Tiangong-1 at the Beijing Aerospace Flight Control Center, emphasizing that "the aerospace dream is an integral part of the dream to strengthen the nation." Since the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China, President Xi has consistently shown concern and attention towards the development of China's aerospace endeavors, issuing multiple instructions on building a powerful space power. He profoundly stated that "the vastness of the starry sky is boundless, exploration never ends, and only through continuous innovation can the Chinese nation better stride toward the future"; "aerospace science and technology is a critical field for scientific progress and innovation, serving as an important indicator of a country's level of scientific and technological capability"; "the innovative achievements in aerospace science have greatly inspired the Chinese people's belief and confidence in innovation, providing strong motivation for innovation and creativity across society"; and called for aerospace workers in the new era to bravely climb the peaks of aerospace science and technology to "realize the great dream of building a strong space power as soon as possible." The guidance from President Xi and the strategic decisions of the CPC Central Committee have led the rapid development of China's aerospace industry in the new era. Chinese aerospace continues to create new history, with the Chinese people's steps in exploring space becoming more stable and far-reaching.

I.The Steadfast Footsteps of China's Aerospace Development

On October 8, 1956, following the suggestion of Dr. Qian Xuesen, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China established the Fifth Academy of the Ministry of National Defense to oversee missile technology research, marking the official beginning of New China¡¯s aerospace endeavors. A significant milestone was reached on April 24, 1970, when China successfully launched its first artificial Earth satellite, "Dongfanghong-1". This event broadcast the melody of "The East Is Red" into space, inaugurating a new era for Chinese aerospace. Since then, China's aerospace industry has rapidly expanded. Satellites that provide services and carry out missions such as communications, navigation, and remote sensing now populate low Earth orbit. Manned spacecraft and space stations have orbited the Earth, while lunar exploration missions under the "Chang'e" program have ventured to the Moon. The "Tianwen" mission embarked on Mars exploration, and the "Xihe" mission pursued solar studies. These achievements symbolize the solid footprints left by the Chinese people in the vast expanse of space.

Shenzhou Soaring to the Skies, Strolling Through Space. In the early 1990s, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China made the significant decision to implement the manned space program and outlined a "three-step" development strategy. On October 15, 2003, the successful launch of the Shenzhou-5 manned spacecraft marked China's first human spaceflight, making it the third country to independently master manned space technology. This achievement signified the successful completion of the "first step" of the "three-step" strategy. Following this milestone, China advanced steadily with the "second step". From the "Tiangong" (Heavenly Palace) experimental modules to the "Tianzhou" (Heavenly Vessel) cargo spacecraft, breakthroughs were achieved in key technologies such as extravehicular activities (EVAs), rendezvous and docking, and on-orbit refueling. These advancements solidified the implementation of the "second step" of the strategy. The transition into the "third step" began with the successful maiden flight of the Long March 5B, China¡¯s new-generation carrier rocket, on May 5, 2020, marking the first victory in space station phase missions. On April 29, 2021, the Tianhe core module was successfully launched, followed by three astronauts smoothly entering the Tianhe core module on June 17 of the same year, becoming the first inhabitants of China¡¯s space station. Subsequently, China completed the launches of the Wentian and Mengtian laboratory modules along with multiple missions of Shenzhou manned spacecraft and Tianzhou cargo spacecraft, achieving 12 consecutive successes. With these accomplishments, the construction of China's space station was fully realized, and the strategic goals of the "three-step" development plan for the manned space program were comprehensively achieved. China's space station has now transitioned into an application and development phase.

On June 26, 2024, at the opening ceremony of the Chang'e-6 return capsule held at the Fifth Academy of China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation, researchers were seen removing the lunar sample container to prepare for weighing. According to measurements, the Chang'e-6 mission successfully collected 1935.3 grams of samples from the far side of the Moon. Photo by Jin Liwang/Xinhua News Agency.

Constructing a space station and establishing a national space laboratory are significant milestones in China¡¯s manned space program, representing important achievements in building a strong aerospace and science & technology nation. As of April 2024, the Shenzhou manned spacecraft has carried out 18 missions, including 13 crewed flights, all of which have been successfully completed. Currently, we are accelerating the development of the Mengzhou manned spacecraft. This new spacecraft will meet the demands for crewed lunar exploration and near-Earth space station missions, further advancing the comprehensive improvement of China's manned spaceflight technology. The spirit forged over 30 years of China¡¯s manned space endeavors is an inheritance and promotion of the "Two Bombs, One Satellite" spirit¡ªa vivid embodiment of the great national spirit. It underscores China's commitment to scientific innovation and its pursuit of excellence in space exploration.

Reaching for the Moon and Inquiring into the Heavens.

The Moon, as Earth¡¯s natural satellite, represents humanity's first outpost beyond Earth in the exploration of cosmic space. Since 1999, the Science and Technology Commission of the National Defense Industry began organizing scientific objectives for lunar exploration, establishing a nationwide collaborative engineering system, and proposing a lunar orbit exploration project. In January 2004, the lunar orbit exploration project was officially approved and named the Chang'e Project.  On October 24, 2007, the Chang'e-1 probe was successfully launched, marking China's first step in lunar exploration. On January 3, 2019, Chang'e-4 achieved the first-ever soft landing on the far side of the Moon by a human-made probe, setting a milestone in lunar exploration. On December 17, 2020, Chang'e-5 returned to Earth carrying 1,731 grams of lunar samples, making China the third country to achieve lunar sample return. This mission significantly contributed to deepening human understanding of the Moon's formation and the history of the Solar System's evolution. On June 25, 2024, Chang'e-6 brought back 1,935.3 grams of lunar samples, making China the third country to achieve lunar sample return. This mission significantly contributed to deepening human understanding of the Moon's formation and the history of the Solar System's evolution. On June 25, 2024, Chang'e-6 brought back 1,935.3 grams of lunar samples collected from the far side of the Moon, achieving the first-ever sample return from the lunar far side in human history. This accomplishment stands as another landmark achievement in China¡¯s journey toward becoming a strong aerospace and science & technology nation.

The bold conception and successful implementation of every lunar exploration mission is a full demonstration of humanity's capability to understand and utilize space. Over two decades, the path of lunar exploration has nurtured a "Lunar Exploration Spirit" characterized by chasing dreams, courage to explore, collaborative efforts to overcome difficulties, and win-win cooperation. This spirit has paved a high-quality, high-efficiency road for lunar detection. The implementation of the lunar exploration project embodies the Chinese nation's dream of flying to the sky and embracing the moon, a dream of self-reliance and perseverance.

 Venturing into Deep Space, Gazing Upon the Cosmos

Mars, the fourth planet from the Sun, is considered the most Earth-like planet in our solar system. China¡¯s first Mars exploration mission was officially approved in 2016, with the ambitious goal of achieving orbiting, landing, and roving in a single mission to conduct comprehensive global observations and regional surface exploration of Mars. The Tianwen-1 probe, tasked with China¡¯s maiden Mars mission, consists of two main parts: Orbiter (Lower Section): This section is primarily responsible for the "journey to Mars," conducting orbital exploration, and providing relay communication support. Lander and Rover (Upper Section): This part is designed to land on the Martian surface, carrying the Zhurong rover, China's first Mars rover. In Chinese tradition, Zhurong is revered as the god of fire; naming the first Mars rover after him symbolizes igniting the flame of China¡¯s interstellar exploration¡ªa guiding beacon that inspires continuous effort, constant surpassing of limits, and the pursuit of exploring the profound cosmo.

On May 15, 2021, the Tianwen-1 mission successfully landed on Mars, marking the first time China has left its imprint on the Red Planet. This achievement represents a significant step in China¡¯s interstellar exploration journey and signifies the transition from exploring the Earth-Moon system to interplanetary space. By becoming the third country to land on Mars, China has entered the forefront of planetary exploration on the global stage.

II.The Foundation of China's Space Exploration Capabilities
On the journey from establishing itself as a major player in aerospace to becoming a leading power, China has seen its launch vehicles, satellites, spacecraft, space stations, and probes make significant appearances and undergo upgrades across a series of major projects. This evolution has continuously enhanced China¡¯s capabilities to access space, utilize space, and explore space.

The Capacity to Access Space Determines the Scope of Aerospace Activities. The extent of humanity¡¯s ability to access space defines the stage upon which aerospace activities unfold. Currently, human access to space primarily relies on launch vehicles and other aerospace transport tools, with launch vehicles being the principal means to overcome Earth's gravity and enter space. They form the bedrock for developing space technology and exploring unknown realms of space.

Payload capacity is the most basic and crucial metric for rockets, and the Long March series of launch vehicles has consistently focused on enhancing this capability. In 1970, the Long March 1 could only carry a payload of 0.3 tons to low Earth orbit (LEO). Fast forward to the "13th Five-Year Plan" period (2016-2020), the new generation of launch vehicles, such as the Long March 5, achieved a significant leap in LEO payload capacity to 25 tons and geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO) payload capacity to 14 tons. This advancement brought China's space access capabilities to world-class levels.  Currently under development, with its maiden flight planned for 2027, the Long March 10 is expected to have an impressive payload capacity of up to 70 tons.

On June 22, 2024, the Long March 2C launch vehicle lifted off from the Xichang Satellite Launch Center, successfully placing the Sino-French Astronomical Satellite into its designated orbit. This mission marked the 525th flight of the Long March series of launch vehicles. The pace of launches has significantly accelerated over time. It took 37 years for the Long March series to achieve its first 100 launches, whereas the most recent 100 launches were completed in just 2 years, demonstrating a rapid increase in launch frequency. China¡¯s launch vehicle technology has evolved significantly, from multi-stage serial configurations to multi-stage serial configurations with strap-on boosters, and from conventional propulsion to cryogenic propulsion. The range of orbits accessible by these launch vehicles has expanded from low Earth orbit (LEO) to high Earth orbit, from lunar orbit to interplanetary trajectories. Launch methods have also advanced from "one arrow, one star" (single satellite launches) to "one arrow, multiple stars" (multiple satellite launches), and from unmanned missions to manned flights. Through this evolution, China¡¯s launch vehicles have gradually achieved standardization, modularization, and generalization. These advancements have continuously reduced launch costs while steadily improving reliability.

Expanding Utilization of Space to Serve Socioeconomic Development

Currently, humanity primarily utilizes space through various types of artificial satellites for communication, navigation, and remote sensing. These satellites leverage the space environment and resources to provide a wide array of services that benefit human society.

Communication satellites are used to facilitate long-distance radio communication. Before the advent of communication satellites, long-distance communication between two distant points on Earth was achieved primarily through two methods: cable transmission and Ground-Based Radio Equipment. Microwave radio can carry a large volume of information and offers relatively stable transmission. However, apart from long-wave radio stations, most wireless communication methods have a limited range, typically only a few hundred meters to a few hundred kilometers. In the late 1950s, after the launch of artificial Earth satellites, people quickly realized the potential of using satellites for long-distance communication. To enhance the reflection of radio waves back to Earth from satellites, these satellites were designed to function similarly to microwave relay stations on the ground. They receive radio signals from the ground, amplify them, and then retransmit them back to Earth. Since the successful launch of its first geostationary orbit communication satellite in 1984, China¡¯s communication satellites have achieved significant milestones, transforming from practical applications to commercial use, from fixed services to mobile services, from narrowband to broadband services, and from single-satellite systems to constellation networks. This evolution has resulted in a ten-thousand-fold increase in communication speed, capacity, and the number of supported terminals. These advancements now meet diverse application needs such as television broadcasting, remote education, telemedicine, and broadband communication across various scenarios. Simultaneously, China¡¯s Dongfanghong (Eastern Red) series of communication platforms have rapidly developed, evolving from Dongfanghong-1 to Dongfanghong-5. This series has grown extensively and robustly, becoming increasingly sophisticated and versatile.

Navigation satellites continuously transmit radio signals to provide navigation and positioning services for users on the ground, at sea, in the air, and in space. In the latter part of the 20th century, China began exploring the construction of its satellite navigation system. y the end of 2000, the BeiDou-1 system was completed, providing services to China. By the end of 2012, the BeiDou-2 system was operational, extending services to the Asia-Pacific region. n 2020, the completion of the BeiDou-3 system marked the beginning of global service provision. The BeiDou system has achieved breakthroughs in several core technologies, including new navigation signal designs, inter-satellite links, and high-performance satellite-borne atomic clocks. It has realized 100% indigenous control over critical satellite components, with service performance reaching international advanced levels. Currently, the BeiDou system is promoted and used in more than half of the countries and regions worldwide, entering a phase of market-oriented, industrialized, and international development. This represents a significant contribution by China to the construction of global public service infrastructure. Over three decades of research, development, and construction of the BeiDou system have fostered a new era of BeiDou spirit characterized by innovation, openness, integration, unity of purpose, and excellence. This spirit embodies the continuation of the red gene¡ªthe legacy of aerospace science and technology¡ªin the new era, highlighting China¡¯s commitment to advancing space technology for the benefit of all humanity.

Remote sensing satellites are designed to cover the entire Earth or any specified region within a defined timeframe. When operating in geostationary orbit, they provide high temporal resolution remote sensing for designated areas on Earth¡¯s surface. When operating in sun-synchronous or other low Earth orbits, they offer high spatial resolution remote sensing for specific regions. China has established a comprehensive series of remote sensing satellites, including those focused on resources, oceans, environmental disaster monitoring, and meteorology (such as the FengYun series). The country has also implemented major projects for high-resolution Earth observation systems. These systems achieve imaging resolutions better than 0.5 meters, utilizing a variety of observation methods such as visible light, infrared, laser, hyperspectral, and synthetic aperture radar. These technologies find applications in agriculture, forestry, marine studies, land resources, environmental protection, and meteorology. Currently, China has more than 200 high-resolution Earth observation satellites stably operating in orbit. Civilian-use optical satellites alone can achieve 2-meter resolution data coverage of the entire national terrestrial territory on a quarterly basis. Through these remote sensing satellites, we not only gauge the world¡¯s conditions but also observe the subtle changes occurring across the globe.

The utilization of space has brought numerous benefits to economic and social development, as well as improvements in daily life and production activities. For example, in power sector, The high-precision positioning provided by the BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS) is used for autonomous drone inspections, robotic inspections of substations, and monitoring of transmission towers. In transportion sector,  Approximately 8.3 million road-operational vehicles, nearly 50,000 vessels, and over 2,100 general aviation aircraft are equipped with BeiDou terminal devices. These applications improve navigation accuracy, traffic management, and operational safety across various modes of transportation. In agriculture sector, based on the BeiDou system, agricultural machinery with autonomous driving terminals has reached 200,000 units. This technology facilitates cross-enterprise integration of agricultural machinery operation data and provides 24-hour dynamic monitoring of major grain crops such as rice, wheat, and corn, as well as tractor operations. This enhances precision agriculture and improves crop yields. In 2023, China¡¯s satellite navigation and location services industry achieved a total output value of 536.2 billion yuan (RMB), representing a year-on-year increase of 7.09%. Of this, the associated output value generated by satellite navigation applications and services reached 375.1 billion yuan (RMB). 

Exploring Space to Unveil the Unknown and Reveal Natural Phenomena and Laws of the Universe

Space exploration refers to the investigation of space using spacecraft such as space stations, space probes, and other orbital vehicles as primary platforms to conduct space science research.

        On June 5, 2022, the Long March 2F Y14 launch vehicle, carrying the Shenzhou-14 manned spacecraft, ignited and launched from the Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center. Following a successful autonomous rapid rendezvous and docking procedure, Chinese astronauts Chen Dong, Liu Yang, and Cai Xuzhe smoothly entered the Tianhe core module of the China Space Station.

Space probes, also known as deep space probes, are unmanned spacecraft used by humans to explore distant celestial bodies and space, serving as the primary tool for current space exploration. Based on their targets, space probes include lunar probes, planetary and interplanetary probes, and small body probes. In terms of lunar and deep space exploration, China has successfully launched six lunar probes. Among them, the Chang 'e-2 probe obtained the full moon with a resolution of 7 meters for the first time in the world. Chang 'e-5 adopts the world-leading unmanned docking program in lunar orbit to transfer lunar soil, and the sampling weight leads the history of unmanned lunar sampling. After 53 days and 11 flight stages since its launch, the Chang 'e-6 mission has broken through key technologies such as the design and control of the lunar retrograde orbit, the intelligent fast sampling of the lunar back, and the take-off and ascent of the lunar back, obtaining lunar samples for the first time, and carrying four international payloads, and carrying out pragmatic and efficient international cooperation. In terms of Mars exploration, the orbiter of the Tiann-1 probe entered the orbit of the remote sensing mission after multiple precision near-fire braking, and obtained medium-resolution image data covering the whole planet of Mars to realize the global exploration of Mars. The landing rover successfully landed in the pre-selected landing area in the south of Mars Utopia Plain by implementing aerodynamic deceleration, parachute deceleration, dynamic deceleration and landing buffering using hover obstacle avoidance technology. The video of the moving process of the Mars surface sent back by the Zhurong rover is the first time that humans have obtained images of the moving process of the rover on the Mars surface. Both the orbiter and the rover have completed their scientific exploration tasks.

China's Aerospace Future ¨C A Poem to the Heavens

Gazing up at the profound expanse of the cosmos and steadfastly walking the path toward becoming a space power, China aims to accelerate the comprehensive development of space science, space technology, and space applications. The focus will be on enhancing the innovation momentum in aerospace science and technology and bolstering the support capabilities for socioeconomic development. This advancement will better serve the development of new forms of productivity and promote Chinese-style modernization. Furthermore, China is committed to actively engaging in broader international exchanges and cooperation, contributing to the shared well-being of humanity.

Major Scientific and Technological Projects and Missions for Space Development and Utilization

Enhancing the Capability for Free Access, Efficient Utilization, and Scientific Exploration of Space¡¢

Accessing space should evolve towards high performance, low cost, long-distance travel, rapid response, intelligence, and scalability. This involves developing heavy-lift rockets and new-generation manned rockets, accelerating the research and operation of reusable launch vehicles, and establishing a scheduled space transportation system that benefits people's livelihoods. Utilizing space should achieve multi-functionality in single satellites, networking multiple satellites, and expanding to Earth-Moon space for on-orbit services. Focusing on communication, navigation, and remote sensing applications, an advanced, globally covered, and efficient integrated information network should be built. Establish an on-orbit service and maintenance system, setting up a "space 4S shop" to provide in-orbit repair services for satellites, enabling on-orbit upgrades and construction. Exploring space aims at achieving long-term operations of near-Earth space stations, prioritized development within the Earth-Moon space, and gradually exploring regions beyond the Moon. Initiating exploration into the solar system¡¯s vicinity to search for potential extraterrestrial life and possibly habitable planets suitable for humans, seeking answers to whether "we humans are alone."

Innovate and optimize operational mechanisms, cultivate high-caliber professionals, and unite outstanding capabilities.

Continuing to leverage the advantages of the new national system, facilitate the smooth flow of various advanced and high-quality production factors towards the development of new productive forces, and promote an overall enhancement of the country's scientific and technological capabilities. Increase efforts in independent innovation, accelerate the creation of strategic scientific and technological power in space, and achieve a transformation from a development model that follows others to one that leads through innovation. Rapidly develop the space application industry, upgrade traditional industries, cultivate emerging space industries, and strategically plan for future industries to boost high-quality economic development. Attract and gather outstanding talent, ensuring a virtuous cycle of education, science and technology, and talent development in line with the requirements for developing new productive forces. Inherit and promote the spirit of the "Two Bombs, One Satellite," manned spaceflight, lunar exploration, and the new era BeiDou spirit to stimulate intrinsic driving forces.

China's space exploration, guided by Xi Jinping's Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era, will achieve newer technological breakthroughs and greater "Chinese heights," realizing a more magnificent aerospace dream and a dream of a strong country. Reaching out to the nine heavens to grasp the moon, the brilliance of Beidou, the splendor of the star rivers, and traveling through space¡ªall these reflect China's commitment to pursuing dreams in space, courageously exploring, collaborating in tackling challenges, and achieving win-win cooperation.